La leyenda negra

Por The Colca Specialist

La leyenda negra: El periodo colonial de la historia peruana se ha vuelto con el tiempo un sinónimo de atraso y ha pasado a representar todo lo negativo de la historia del Perú. Sin embargo, a pesar de todas estas creencias sobre la colonia, poco es lo que realmente sabemos sobre dicho periodo y muchas de esas creencias carecen de fundamento cuando se les examina científicamente. En esta oportunidad el historiador Pedro Guibovich, especialista en la historia colonial y en el Tribunal de la inquisición, desmitificará algunas de esas ideas que tenemos sobre esta parte de nuestro pasado.

Overcoming fears

An experience with death in the Apacheta Cemetery of Arequipa

by The Colca Specialist

Yesterday´s night the public beneficence of Arequipa presented an event called “Overcoming Fears” which took place in one of the most well-known cemeteries of Arequipa called “La Apacheta”.

“Overcoming Fears” is a night ghost tour prepared for the different arequipenian means of communication and authorities too. Th especial guests were the members of the tour guides association of Caylloma ASGUIP TUCAY and the teather group PAZ CLOWN from Arequipa.

The circuit inside the cemetery was created by the tourism bachelor Marcela Chilo Tipola who was in charge of the presentation of it. Cesar Antonio Neyra Nuñez, the president of ASGUIP TUCAY association was in charge of providing the historical information during the circuit and the well-known Guillermo Rendón shared with the tourists his deep knowledge in comparative religion.

The teather group PAZCLOWN from Arequipa started the tour with a really beautiful dance called “La danza macabra” a version of “the dead dance” a dance that was introduced in Peru by the spanish conquerors.

The experience of being at night was incredible, and all the participants had an incredible experience inside the cemetery.

The tour was really diffrerent from other ghost tours I took before which were a real disaster. This one was different beacuse we had theather,music,three different kinds of guiding an a special surprise that when it was announced many people felt a little bit scared including me.

Marcela Chilo Tipola, the creator of this night circuit inside La Apacheta Cemetery announced that we were going to be guided by somebody who died before.

That person was the tour guide and famous sportsman Guillermo Rendón who died on July 24th 2006 in a traffic accident in Colca Valley area. He was 30 minutes without pulse and heartbeats inside the ambulance with a doctor a nurse and then after that he came back to life again.

That made the difference. Guillermo Rendón didn´shared only his vast knowldege in Comparative Religion and aboriginal cults but also his experience with death during the accident.

The circuit ended with a very deep message : LIVE THE PRESENT.

All the participants considered that this event was really great and that the authorities of tourism of Arequipa should do its best in order to create new touristic circuits like this one.

Eventhough that the representatives of tourism in Arequipa Luis Venero La Torre and representatives of Promperu didn´assist to the event.Authorities like these should be buried quickly in the sand of forgetness.

Congratulations to all the participants and see you next time!

The Colca Specialist.

4 things to learn from Michael Jackson!

By Marcus A. Baker

Love him or hate him, you can't ignore who Michael Jackson was. He was and still is everywhere. The fact that his name still dominated news headlines a good week after his death is proof enough that he had an impact on millions of lives globally.

Despite the controversies, mystery and perceived unhappiness, Michael Jackson, the king of pop was a superstar, successful in ways we can only dream about. What if any were his secrets to success? Here are four observations I believe contributed to his legacy, all of which we can apply if we choose to be as successful in our own right.

Michael Jackson was passionate:

He did what made him happy - sing and dance. When you love what you do, you will do whatever it takes to achieve your goals. It's a drive that will come naturally from within, so even though it may take you a while to get to where you want to be, you will enjoy the journey so much that you will not mind the time it takes to get there.

Those who believe in the law of attraction will tell you that to be successful you have to be happy because when you are, you focus on what is working and the feeling of happiness that you experience. The more you do this, the more you will attract of the same to your life. If you want to be successful, do what you love. Connect with your passion. Be happy.

Michael Jackson was in touch with his inner child:

He knew that life can be outrageously fun, that it's possible to be audaciously happy when you connect with your inner child. He had a child-like quality, a playfulness that helped him dismantle the contradictory beliefs that cover up this most precious knowing.

His 'Never land Ranch' inspired by Peter Pan who refused to "grow up" was testimony to the fact that you CAN have life your way. The true act of growing up is recognizing that you CAN have everything you desire if only you will believe as a child believes, before we strip this magic from them. He may not have had absolutely everything he desired in his life but nobody attains perfection.

He certainly seemed to be doing better than the majority of us. If you want to be successful do what Michael Jackson did, don't take life too seriously. Believe anything is possible and believe in the highest good of all people as children do.

Michael Jackson constantly evolved:

He was a true innovator - continually re-inventing himself through time. It was this that made it possible for him to appeal to such a wide spectrum of people. He became his own brand which of course was totally unique. There was nobody like Michael Jackson, nor will there ever be.

He stood out by taking risks. Not all his behavior was appreciated by everyone but his actions defined the brand that was him. He also maintained an air of mystery. One never knew everything about him nor what he was going to do next. This ensured that his loyal fans remained intrigued followers.

If you want to be successful you need to express your unique nature, be your own brand and give up needing to conform. It's only then that you will be able to stand apart from the masses and be truly different.

Michael Jackson excelled despite his hardships:

His early years were difficult and challenging and missing out on a 'normal' childhood presented its own brand of issues, but he was successful despite this. Why? Because deep down he was true to himself and the belief he had in himself.

This always went deeper than any hardship he endured. As an adult he was often the subject of gossip and misunderstanding but he never let any of it hold him down.

Right till the end with a world tour just weeks away, he was about to emerge out of the ashes like a phoenix and prove that he could survive anything. If you want to be successful, you too will have to release the need to blame others for your failure, instead rising above your hardship and succeeding regardless.

No matter what it is you want to achieve, the key to your success will be dependent on your ability to use the power and influence of your sub conscious mind. My passion is for helping those who want to start and achieve a successful home based business. If you would like to be your own boss and have whatever you desire in life then I'd like to invite you to consider if and how I can mentor you to success.

Success With Marcus [http://www.successwithmarcus.com]

Carreteras del Colca:un desastre completo!

por The Colca Specialist

Antes de empezar con este artículo quisiera mandar un fraternal saludo a todos los choferes que día a día malogran sus vehículos en estas vías que según las autoridades son carreteras ,las mismas que para los entendidos en el ramo son tan sólo ridículas carpetas asfálticas llenas de parches y hoyos hechas no a conciencia por personajes que al hacerlas sólo pensaban en meterse una jugosa cantidad de dinero sin importarles en si la obra misma que al final quedaba convertida en un adefesio.

Esta ridícula carpeta asfáltica llega hasta Chivay y desde Yanque hasta la Cruz del Cóndor lo único que hay es un desastre, una vía para llena de huecos, barro y piedras que en esta época de lluvias se vuelve literalmente intransitable. Vías por las que día a día transitan cientos de turistas quienes se van asombrados de ver tamaña monstruosidad de carretera y se van más asombrados aún de saber que en el Perú y especialmente en Caylloma existen organizaciones como AUTOCOLCA (Autoridad Autónoma de Coimeros y Ladrones del Colca) que abusan de los turistas con sus cobros excesivos de 70 soles por persona para visitar el Cañón del Colca cuyas carreteras parecen más bien haber sufrido un bombardeo aéreo.

La mayoría de turistas entrevistados se van descontentos de saber que el dinero que han pagado por el concepto de boleto turístico es un dinero que no beneficia a la población de la provincia de Caylloma ni siquiera al distrito en el que se encuentra ubicada la Cruz del Cóndor: Cabanaconde ,el mismo que tiene una serie de deficiencias como lo son el estado ruinoso en el que se encuentran los sitios de interés arqueológicos como Kallimarka entre otros problemas los cuales sería muy largo enumerar.

Desde aquí felicitamos al alcalde de Cabanaconde Jorge Guerra que en un gesto de amor a su pueblo ha hecho lo necesario para que el tramo Cruz del Condor-Cabanaconde este en optimas condiciones para los visitantes que visitan día a día el distrito de Cabanaconde.

En un gesto digno de imitar el alcalde de Cabanaconde presentó en el auditorio de la Municipalidad de Arequipa ante el periodismo nacional la Marca Cabanaconde entregando material de difusión a los periodistas y promotores turísticos allí presentes. ¿Y qué pasa con el resto de alcaldes discapacitados mentales de la provincia de Caylloma que todavía siguen pensando que el alcalde actual va a promocionar sus respectivos distritos? Eso va a suceder cuando aparezca volando un cóndor rosado en el Cañón del Colca o sea NUNCA! ¿O es que están esperando que el falso guía de montaña Zacarías Ocsa los promocione a través de sus bodrios en internet?

AUTOCOLCA tampoco hace nada al respecto. La corrupción impera en Caylloma. Es un hecho.

El turismo solo beneficia a una margen del Valle del Colca, la zona alta, la otra margen y el denominado corredor Ampato no cuentan con ningún tipo de apoyo para la difusión de sus atractivos turísticos y mucho menos con apoyo para la construcción de una carretera para facilitar la visita de los turistas.

Los cobros desmesurados han provocado la disminución de los visitantes que prefieren ahora irse a Cusco o a Puno dado que allí tienen muchas más opciones turísticas, de todo tipo y precio, todas ellas bastante promocionadas a nivel nacional y en el extranjero, todas ellas con accesos que facilitan la visita de los turistas y muy bien señalizados.

El Cañón del Colca no ganó el Concurso de las Maravillas Naturales del Mundo. Era obvio. Con las trochas llenas de huecos que cuenta el circuito turístico era imposible que ganase el concurso. No se salva de la crítica ni siquiera el Hotel Colca Lodge cuya vía de acceso parece más bien la vía de acceso a un burdel clandestino.

Para que un atractivo turístico pueda tener una afluencia continua de turistas es necesario que primero cuente con los servicios necesarios para los visitantes y sobre todo que cuente con vías de acceso (carreteras) que le permitan al turista poder tener acceso a dichos atractivos turísticos. Eso lo sabe cualquiera.

Es imposible visitar un atractivo turístico cuyas vías se encuentren en mal estado. Las autoridades de Caylloma ni siquiera arreglan las carreteras y todavía tienen cara de cobrar un boleto turístico de 70 soles alegando que el dinero obtenido va en beneficio del pueblo de Caylloma cuando claramente uno se puede dar cuenta de que ese dinero se va directamente a los bolsillos de los ladrones con corbata que son las autoridades de la provincia de Caylloma.

Es una vergüenza que el Cañón del Colca considerado como el destino turístico más importante de la región Arequipa tenga unas carreteras que son una porquería, es una vergüenza que la provincia de Caylloma tenga organizaciones corruptas y ineficaces como AUTOCOLCA (Autoridad Autónoma de Coimeros y Ladrones del Colca) nombre que provoca náuseas al pronunciarlo cuyo color verde no representa el color verde de los campos de cultivo del Valle del Colca sino el verde estiércol ,el excremento verde de los burros y mulas que los eligieron para ocupar dichos cargos.

Me voy a casa indignado por los abusos que hasta la fecha se vienen cometiendo en contra del turismo en el Cañón del Colca y en contra de los pobladores de la provincia de Caylloma quienes son los más afectados después de todo.

Pero a manera de venganza me queda la risa, la burla y el sarcasmo de saber al menos que gracias a Dios el chaleco de mi empresa no es de color verde ESTIERCOL como el chaleco de AUTOCOLCA (Autoridad Autónoma de Coimeros y Ladrones del Colca) Hasta la vista amigos co0nductores y esperamos que nos manden sus comentarios los mismos que serán publicados en esta misma página. Hasta la vista!

The World of Pre-Columbian Women

By Tim Mc Guinness Phd

Rarely do Pre-Columbian studies or texts focus much attention or detail on the role of Women in Ancient America: their role in society; their labors; their place in family; their health; and the frequent abuses they suffered in Pre-Columbian Cultures. The purpose of this site, is not to be a comprehensive document on the subject, but rather to provide an introduction to the subject, and a guide to select writings and other websites, that can provide more in-depth focus.

For those new to the subject, Pre-Columbian America refers to the regions in the American continents, and the Isthmus between, before the influence of the Europeans (prior to 1500 CE/AD). It refers to the indigenous civilizations of the Americas, such as those of Mesoamerica, North America, and the Andes regions. The term "Pre-Columbian" can indicate the time from the arrival of humans on the American continent (before 14,000 BCE/BC) to approximately 1500 CE/AD. However, it is commonly used for the cultural periods from about 4000 BCE to Conquest.

This site will mainly focus on societies right before the arrival of the Europeans - Aztec, Mayan, Andean (Inka and others), and briefly North America. It will focus on women's role in the Maya and Aztec civilizations of Mesoamerica, the Inca culture from South America, and North American in general.

In these societies, like in any other society, women play important roles. From domestic activities to political power. They take care of their children, prepare food for the family, and weave textiles. However, women's roles differ from region to region, some having a position in the market and others maintaining essential position in religion and politics. However, in some cultures women held a role as object, trade good, slave, and subject of horrific ritual brutality.
Women's Role in the Mayan Civilization

In the contemporary Maya society of Zinacantan, Mexico, it is said that "man produces the raw materials, and women transforms them into objects of use and consumption." This complementary gender role is applicable to the gender role of the ancient Maya. Most of the roles women of ancient Maya society are inferred only from the elaborate burial and ceremonial sites of the Maya - from their glyphs, elaborate murals, steles, vases, and other burial offerings. Women in the Maya society, like any other civilization, had everyday roles in the care of the household, and their families. They raised animals within the household, prepared food for the family, and made clothing & textiles.

Daily village life for Mayan Women

Along with the roles in everyday activities, women played an important part in religion. As girls, they were trained and taught how to serve religious shrines, and participate in ritual practices of their religion. In addition, there is evidence that some elite women took part in politics.

WOMEN'S ROLE IN MAYA SOCIETY

In everyday life, in the household, women played an essential role. Firstly, they were mothers, raising children. Also, it was their role to prepare and cook food for the family. In fact, as Maya society depended on deer meat, it was typically the women's responsibility to manage the supply of deer. There is evidence that deer were domesticated by the Mayan household, raised by women for men to kill and butcher. Not only that, women wove textiles, which was important not only for domestic use, but as a trade good - an essential aspect in Maya society. It is not known whether all women wove textiles, but it appears that all textiles made were produced by women.

Craft and fiber evidence from the buried city of Ceren - buried by volcanic ash in 600 C.E.- show that women's textile work was not only a normal part of domestic life for specific household purposes, but had its position in the marketplace as well. Women in Maya society had a critical role in crafts, producing valuable commodities for outside consumption.

Also in Maya society, women seemed to have participated in both politics and religion. This is confirmed by the discovery in Guatemala of a 2 meter high limestone monument that depicts a woman of authority in that ancient Maya city. This portrait could be either a ruler or a mythical goddess. Archaeologists from La Trobe University in Australia state that, "This stele may date from the late 4th century AD, making it as much as 200 years older than previously discovered monuments depicting powerful Mayan women.

We have images of queens, who ruled singly and with their husbands and sons, depicted on stelae later in Maya history beginning in the early 6th century AD. But this stele is completely unique in style and likely dates to the 4th century AD. It's unique in that it shows a woman in a really early period in Maya history, a period when the city states were being founded and dynasties were being instituted." This shows that women played important roles in the phase when the Maya states were being established.

While there are few actual writings on the subject, it is clear that slavery was practiced. Slaves were gathered, as was as captured as a result of conquest. What is not well known is the role and treatment of female slaves. If they were treated similarly to male captives, then that treatment would have been far from ideal. However, it was likely that female slaves were used in large part as domestic servants, as was done in more modern times.

Women's Role in the Aztec Civilization

The Aztec society was a patriarchy, a male dominated society, ruled by kings and noble loads. Thus, women in this society were considered subordinate of men, possibly even property. As a result, women had little chance to take part in government and religious activities. However, in daily life, people had clear division of roles between men and women. While men worked in the fields and fought in wars or took the job of his father and became tradesmen, women stayed at home and put their efforts into domestic duties like childbearing, weaving, and cooking.

Women were educated for these activities from young ages. Aztec girls were taught at home the skills necessary for marriage; they began spinning at four and cooking at twelve. However, housework was not the only role of the women. Aztec women not only helped in weaving textiles and taking care of the home, but also included themselves in the work force, working as merchants, traders, scribes, courtesans, healers, and midwives.

WOMEN'S ROLE IN AZTEC SOCIETY

Women in the Aztec society played an essential role in maintaining the household. They learned the skills to be a good housekeeper; acquiring abilities concerning childbearing, weaving and cooking. However, they also had a place apart from the everyday house work. For instance, they could be merchants aids that organized and administered expeditions for trade (it is not known whether they could themselves go on the trade expeditions). Also, common women of this society were also offered opportunities in trade goods: they could sell what they made in the marketplace and gain some wealth for their families as a result.

They provided raw and prepared food, cloth, and other items in the market. It is said that women in the Aztec society even held places as official arbiters to resolve disputes that arose in the marketplace. In addition, women became skilled healers and diviners. Documents from the time of the Conquest indicate that the women healers were more highly skilled than contemporary Spanish doctors.

In general, Aztec marriages were monogamous, however, there is ample evidence that marriages of multiple wives occurred as well (see below). However, the Aztec culture did not place the same value on individuals as our modern culture, and in many cases (it appears) women (wives and daughters) were offered to visiting guests, as well as for sacrifice. The worst of the voluntary offerings of women for sacrifice was the ritual of Xipe Totec - where a young girl or woman would be offered by her family to the Aztec priests - raped by the Aztec priests, then skinned alive - after which the priest would wear the woman's skin in a ritual of transformation.

DOÑA MARINA (MALINCHE)

Dona Marina was originally a woman of the Aztec Nahuat culture, encountered by Cortez. She may have been a servant, slave, or outcast in some way, liberated by Cortez. As his companion, she became a Catholic, and played an active and powerful role in the Spanish conquest of Mexico, as an interpreter and an advisor.

Most of what is reported about her early life comes through the reports of Cortez's' "official" biographer, Francisco Lopez de Gomara, which seems far too romantic to be entirely credible, but there is no evidence to the contrary. Although she was not a literate "Pre-Columbian" woman (as most women appeared not to be), by exploring at the role of Dona Marina, one can get an idea of the role of women in Pre-Columbian America at that time.

Malinche was born into a noble family. However, when Marina's father died, her mother gave her away or sold her into slavery. Marina traveled in captivity from her native Nahuatl-speaking region to the Maya-speaking areas of Yucatan, where she learned the different Maya languages. When Hernan Cortes came to this region, the local people offered he and his men hospitality, food, clothing, gold, and slaves, including 20 women.

Marina was one of these women slaves. Cortez noticed her difference, and with her intelligence, and ability to interpret with great efficiency, she earned Cortes' confidence, became his secretary, and then his mistress, eventually bearing him a son. She facilitated communication between Cortes and various Mesoamerican leaders, often actively encouraging negotiations instead bloodshed. Marina was the principal player in building a coalition of city-states that eventually lead to the fall of Tenochtitlan. It is no understatement to believe that without her, Cortez could not have conquered the Aztecs.

Dona Marina had an important role as an interpreter, secretary, mistress, and mother of the first "modern Mexican." However, she was far from a typical woman of her time. Empowered by Cortez, she demonstrated her worth and ability in a way few or no other contemporary woman could have.

WOMEN'S LIVES IN AZTEC CULTURE

Originally, women wove and worked only for their families, but as chiefdoms and small kingdoms developed, the local rulers began to demand tribute (taxes), largely demanded in the form of cloth, which was manufactured almost exclusively by women. Then, as the Aztec culture and empire spread, people were forced to pay more and more in tribute to the Aztec leaders, which could be paid in labor or military service by men and in cloth and other goods by women.

The women's cloth was typically made from agave fibers and was in high demand as commoners were allowed nothing else to wear. As the politics of Aztec culture became more complex, the demand for tribute increased, and men began taking additional wives so that more cloth could be produced by more hands.

Documentation suggests that this led to strained and poor relationships within the family compound. Female slavery also increases as a result.

The Aztecs waged war for gain, as they needed sacrificial victims, tribute, and slaves. Women slaves performed household tasks, especially weaving, freeing the Aztec women for other tasks. Female slaves were also used as concubines and mothered children who also became slaves.

Eventually the demand for cloth tribute became so high that men also began to spin--the most female-identified task in ancient Mexico. Women and men continued to make cloth until the colonial period when the Spanish built textile mills, forcing the men and not the women, because of the Spanish gender roles, to work in cloth production.

Studies of artifacts of weaving and cooking in and near the Aztec capital and has lead to the conclusion that women adapted their weaving as the demand for more and more tribute increased; they changed spindle size and shapes and changed what and how they cooked in order to feed their families, who were in need of increasingly portable food, as they might labor away from home.

WOMEN IN THE AZTEC WORKFORCE

Apart from domestic roles, women in the Aztec empire could be merchants, and trades people in the marketplace.

Women also worked as prostitutes and courtesans, but they do not seem to have been social outcasts as a result. It has been shown that the Florentine Codex, it depicts the prostitutes negatively, from the perspective of the European mindset. In fact, the Aztec courtesans served young noble warriors and danced with them at ritual celebrations, suggesting that they had an elevated status in their own society.

The Europeans criticized these women for bathing, painting their faces, and wearing brightly colored clothing, signs of a fallen European woman, rather than as behavior executed by all the Aztec women, whether prostitute or not.

Aztec women might also be healers or midwives. Although the Spanish tried to quell the religious parts of the midwives' practices, believing it at best distracted from the one true Christian God and at worst that it was witchcraft, they were still impressed by the midwives' skill.

Documents from the Spanish accounts indicate that the women healers were more highly skilled than European doctors; however, as most accounts are written by elite Spanish men, they gloss over or do not describe at all the techniques that the women used. Thus, much of the cultural knowledge of these women was lost, especially as the Spanish began to repress the religion of the Aztecs and prosecute and persecute women healers as witches.

Aztec medicines, made from native plants, are documented to have been able to bring on menstruation or to hasten labor. Aztec women may also have pioneered in prenatal care, as records indicate they began ministering to pregnant women in their seventh month.

There is even evidence that at least one Aztec woman, likely a daughter of a noble family, was a scribe for an emperor. It is likely, too, that the noble Aztec women would have needed scribes and would have thus used females to act as their secretaries and bookkeepers.

Women's Role in the Andean Inca Civilization

Women's roles in the Inca Culture differed from that of both European women and those in the Aztec culture at the time, in that those women existed for the benefit of men. In Inca society, women had much different roles from men, but these roles were considered as complementary to those of men and a necessary part of the society. In fact, women played an essential role in the Inca society. Their primary role, as always, was to raise and take care of children, take charge of household duties, including: cooking, weaving cloth, working in the fields, and spinning. But they also worked right beside men in other activities for which they were suited, from agriculture to public works.

Before the conquest, the Inca household was an autonomous socio-economic unit, indicating that there was much freedom for the individual family, including women. An example is the evidence of skeletal analysis of this period, which shows that women in this period consumed food in similar quality and quantity as men. This can be interpreted as women having equal participation in community and domestic life. In addition, women in the Inca civilization played a large role in religion, controlling the cults of the goddesses (unlike Aztec culture where men controlled religion). However, after the conquest, women's social position was lower than that of men's (typical of Spanish culture of the time), and began to exclude women from its rituals and government.

WOMEN'S ROLE IN THE INCA SOCIETY

Women in Inca society were not required to work for government public works projects, or perform "mit'a", which was a requirement for every man in the society. However, this does not mean that women did not play a role in working for the government or on such projects. In fact, women were to weave one piece of clothing every year to put in the government storehouses (this was not so much a tax, and a community contribution for the community benefit - these storehouses were public resources for the benefit of all). Also, in some cases, they followed their husband on his mit'a, where they cooked, carried heavy burdens, and helped him with many of his tasks as possible.

In everyday life, a women's main role included taking care of the children, cooking, housekeeping, and weaving cloth. But along with these tasks, women participated in the filed work together with men, especially during the sowing and the harvesting season. When the men plowing punched holes into which women sows (plants) corn seeds - in fact, this was a normal ritual, believing that women (the life bringer) ensured a successful crop. During the harvest, women performed heavy labor alongside their men - carrying bundles of stalks, cut by men, to be stacked to dry. Furthermore, women produced flour by grinding corn and sweet potatoes, and wove cloth by spinning and weaving cotton or wool.

THE INCA CHOSEN WOMEN

Chosen Women in the Inca society, otherwise called Acllacunas, were identified as the Virgin of the Sun, and had important economic and cultural roles. They formed a special class in the society and lived in temple convents under a vow of chastity. They lived apart from their families and communities, and their duties included the preparation of ritual food, the maintenance of a sacred fire, and the weaving of garments for the emperor and for ritual use.

The Inca's officials selected girls of 10-years of age with great talent and physical beauty to become Acllacunas. Once selected, they were kept in their temples, not allowed to leave for six or seven years. During these years, these girls received formal education from "Mamaconas", who were chosen women themselves. The girls learned not only to weave and skillfully make clothing worn by the nobles, as well as the robes and elaborate hangings used on state occasions. They were also taught the preparation of special foods and "chicha" (a beverage used in religious ceremonials).

When these girls completed their training, and reached 16 years of age, they were divided in to classes based on their degree of beauty and served the state in different ways. The most beautiful and highly born became concubines of the Inca Emperor. Some of the girls that most matched the Inca ideal of perfection were selected to be sacrificed in honor of the sun. While others were interned for life in one of the convents, where they acted as temple attendants and became Mamaconas themselves in time. Others became wives of nobles or military commanders.

However, majority of Chosen Women served as weavers and food producers in Inca provincial centers, as they were taught to do. They provided the textiles of llama and alpaca cloth, which was an essential part of Inca life. Because the Incas used these textiles as payment to the army, or as gifts for nobles and local leaders in conquered areas, Chosen Women's produce were crucial. Additionally, the Chosen Women also contributed food and chichi for citizens performing mit'a.

The level of social status for the Chosen women was generally great, and they enjoyed many advantages in their society. They did not to perform hard labor, even though voluntary for women, in the fields, and enjoyed a lifetime supply of food and clothing, with whole estates dedicated to their needs.

However, they were denied the support and contact of their families as well as the opportunity to participate in daily social life. Those who married could not select their spouse and those who did not marry lived secluded from the rest of society, in a state of perpetual chastity. The Incas posted guards at these most important separate compounds, and did not permit entry to outsiders. The Inca state guarded and trained the Chosen Women because they played an essential part in maintaining the cohesiveness of the society.
Women were an integral part of every aspect of society during the Inca reign. Their role in that society was very different from that of women in most European societies at that time, and because of this, much of the evidence regarding the role Incan women played is distorted by the views and prejudices of the Spanish conquering men who wrote about the Inca Empire, or Tahuantinsuyu (Four Kingdoms).

However it is possible to reconstruct the world of women in Incan society because of the large variety of sources about the Incas written by Spanish chroniclers during or immediately after the conquest. It appears women in Incan society had a distinctly separate role from men, and that this role was viewed as complementary to the role of men and a necessary component of their society.

This was true in all facets of Incan life including religion, politics, family, and economics. It also appears that women in Incan society had more autonomy and power than most of their Spanish & Pre-Columbian counterparts. Because of this the Spaniards had a hard time relating Incan society accurately in their chronicles. The Spanish didn’t understand one of the most important aspects of Incan society, their true gender roles.

Women had a dual or complementary role in Incan society because of their religion. The Incas, like many of their Andean predecessors, viewed the cosmos in a way that emphasized what they saw as the duality of nature. The Incan people believed that the god Viracocha was the creator of all things.

Viracocha was hermaphroditic in nature, being first male and then female. Stemming from Viracocha were the Sun, or the male, and the Moon, the female. These two were siblings as well as spouses and gave life to the other gods and goddesses as well as to man and woman. From the Sun extended Venus Morning, Lord Earth, and Man. From the Moon extended Venus Evening, Mother Sea, and Woman. Venus Morning was equated with the Sapa Inca himself (the ruler of Tahuantinsuyu), Lord Earth symbolized the male nobility and headmen, and Man symbolized the male commoners.

A parallel chain of authority for women stemmed from the Moon goddess. Venus Evening was the Coya, or queen of the Inca, Mother Sea was the female Incan nobility, and Woman the female commoners. Stemming from each of these chains were also parallel kinship chains of men and women, in which some men and some women (with the Sapa Inca and Coya coming first) had authority over other men and women, and so on.

Because of this dual role within the cosmos and the parallel chains of authority, men controlled the cults to the male gods and women controlled the cults of the goddesses. The Coya, who was believed to be the daughter of the Moon, headed the cult of the Moon. The Sapa Inca headed the cult of the Sun, and was believed to be his son. Women priestesses stemmed down from the Coya in the same way that male priests extended from the Sapa Inca. Women priestesses wielded power as the heads of these cults.

This is because the goddesses of Incan cosmology controlled earthly fertility and human procreation, both of which were integral to Incan agricultural society. Women also had their own royal ancestral cults. Coyas were mummified just like the male Incan rulers and were worshipped, and attended in the same way, meaning they were also treated as though still alive and they retained their estates even in death. (Similar to the way Egyptian kings were honored in death.)

The duality of Incan religion was so complete that even the temples of the Incan goddesses paralleled those of the Incan gods. Statues, as well as the mummies of Incan Coyas, were made of the Incan queens and placed in the temple of the Moon in the same way that mummies of male Incan rulers were placed in the temple of the Sun.

The Moon Temple was decorated in a fashion similar to that of the Sun Temple. It was paneled entirely in silver, as opposed to the Temple of the Sun which was covered with gold. It contained a likeness of the Moon with a woman’s face, while the Temple of the Sun contained a likeness of the Sun with a man’s face. It was served exclusively by female priestesses, or mamaconas, who were chosen either because they had unusual births or who were selected from the acllas, which were religious and secular institutions and education centers. Mamaconas also had their own houses of residence where they prepared garments for the Sapa Inca and idols, made food and drink for religious festivals, and were waited on by other high ranking girls of Incan society.

Unlike other Pre-Columbian cultures, Chosen Women had schools in Cuzco like those of the men where non-Cuzcan girls were sent to learn the trades of womanhood, and Incan lore, as well as the appropriate skills and tasks of government service. These schools were called acllawasi, or house of the chosen women.

Spanish chroniclers thought of these institutions as an Incan version of a nunnery. Acllawasi were an exclusively female institution in Incan society. Once a year an Incan agent inspected villages of the empire to choose the girls who would be sent to the acllawasi or who would become immediate human sacrifices.

The girls chosen for the latter duty were part of crucial state rituals and ensured the power of their fathers, most of whom were headmen, because with the sacrifice of his daughter the father gained the right to pass his title down to his son as well as the special favor of the Sapa Inca. Most of the girls selected for immediate sacrifice or to become acllas were ten to fourteen years of age (similar to the Aztec Xipe Totec ritual).

The virginity of these girls was closely guarded in the acllawasi until their future was decided by the empire’s ruling elite. If one of the girls were found to have lost her virginity, “she would be given the death penalty, and it would be carried out by burying the girl alive or by some equally cruel death”. If they were to become an aclla, which was a strictly secular occupation, they were separated from their communities of origin and housed in acllawasi in the capital of each province. By doing this, the aclla women were turned into full subjects of Cuzco because they were no longer thought of as members of their original communities.

Once in an acllawasi the girls were taught women’s tasks such as spinning, weaving, and chicha making. The cloth made in these institutions was highly valued because of its bright colors and fine weave. The chicha produced was also highly sought after because it was said to be some of the best in Tahuantinsuyu. The girls were also thoroughly indoctrinated into Incan ideology so that when sent to their various destinies, would serve the interests of the Inca whether consciously or unconsciously.

The acllas were organized hierarchically, with the basis for this organization being physical perfection, as the Incas visualized it, and the rank of the girl’s family of origin. Thus there were several different types of acllas who would serve the Inca realm within their various destinies.

It was based on this system that prestigious girls were chosen to be chaste priestesses of the solar or imperial cults. These priestesses, the virginal wives of the Sun, called mamaconas, served in a religious capacity as well as educating newly arrived girls. The mamacona women were wed to the various gods they were to serve in solemn ceremonies and afterward were considered to be wives of those gods (similar to Catholic Nuns).

Occasionally the Sapa Inca would visit one of these institutions to indulge himself with the women. The guards, who were old men, would then confront the Sapa Inca who would confess that he had sinned and the matter would be at rest. These women were generally considered to be saints by the rest of the populace and wielded much power because of their proximity to Incan gods.

Despite this, some of these women had more importance than others within the various cults, especially in the cult to the Moon, the wife of the Sun. One woman, who was often one of the Sapa Inca’s sisters, headed that cult. She governed it in all matters whether religious, economical or other. Thus women had much influence over religious and other matters.

The rest of the girls selected each year were to perform other roles. Another role that the prestigious girls could be chosen for was to be secondary wives of the Sapa Inca. The lower ranking girls served less prestigious gods or goddesses. Some of the lower ranking girls were also given as rewards to men who had pleased the Sapa Inca. It was through the aclla system that the men of the empire were linked to the Sapa Inca by loyalty.

This was because the men would serve the interests of the Sapa Inca if their daughters were taken to an aclla, since it was an honor, or if they were given women as gifts, which was also an honor. In this way, women were a powerful tool for the Incan state.

The Inca Queen, and through her, women, had her own religious celebrations also. For one month out of every year, the entire empire deferred to the Incan queen and to the Moon goddess, or "Coya raymi". This was meant to symbolize the new agricultural cycle and the beginning of the rainy season. It was during this time that any and all female concerns within the realm were given voice, and Men were subordinated during this period.

The Coya was also an important political figure in Incan culture. The selection of an Incan Coya was very similar to that of the selection of the Sapa Inca himself. A potential queen had to show that she was capable of leadership and responsibility before marrying the Sapa Inca, to whom she was usually related.

If the candidate failed to do this, she was removed from consideration. Also, if a woman proved unfit to rule after she became queen, she could be removed from her position (usually by death). An example of this circumstance was the first Coya of Capac Yupanqui. Some time after their marriage she went insane, so Capac asked the Sun god for permission to marry, as his primary wife, another woman who would be capable of performing the duties of the queen. Once made Coya, the queen also received her own estates and her own palace, which was almost as large and sumptuous and the Sapa Inca’s.

The political power of women flowed down from the Coya in a chain parallel to the one extending from the Sapa Inca. It began with the Sapa Inca and Coya at the top, moved to the nobility of Cuzco, to the non-Incan Cuzco nobility, to several ranks of provincial nobility, to local ethnic leaders, and finally ending with any commoners who possessed positions of authority in an "ayllu", or community unit (village).

Moreover both women and men, according to Guaman Poma, were entitled to varying degrees of services, herds, and estates based on their ranking within this system with the Sapa Inca and the Coya at the top. This illustrates the link between the political power of women, and the Coya, to economic power.

However Coyas had power over all subjects at times. Queens ruled in the absence of the Sapa Inca. If the Sapa Inca went off to war, the queen served in his stead in every way. Another important aspect of the queen’s role related to the Inca’s privy council, which was composed of men from the four principal capitals of the Incan state. If the council could not come to agreement on an issue, it was turned over to the queen. After she made a decision it was final, and accepted by the Sapa Inca as such. Thus the Coyas could and did make important governmental decisions, which would have had very far reaching effects.

Three Coyas were known to be especially powerful in the history of the Incan people. These were Mama Huaco, Mama Ocllo, and Mama Anahuarque. All of these women wielded significant power as well as advising their sons and husbands about government. This is especially interesting in light of the fact that these women were married to three of the most prominent kings (Incas) in Incan social history, Manco Capac, Topa Inca, and Pachacuti.

From these examples it is evident that the Coya of the Incas had more power than most of her European equivalents, who were, in most cases, merely a means for a king to produce an heir.
However the majority of the Incan queen’s authority centered on other women.

All women paid obeisance to the queen in the same way that men paid obeisance to the Sapa Inca, even kissing her hand in the same way that men kissed the king's. During festivals the queen of the Incas would give and receive reciprocity from provincial leaders and lower-ranking members of the Cuzco nobility.

She was expected to be very generous on such occasions, and these reciprocity ties were completely separate from those of the Sapa Inca. She “was able to bind others into a web of obligation through which power relations were articulated.” Therefore the Coya had her own power base in the Incan realm based on these ties in the same way that the Sapa Inca himself.

The Coya also had authority over women’s marriage rights. It was her responsibility to marry the female subjects of the empire to the male subjects. She had two hundred ladies in waiting whom she often married to men who either the Sapa Inca or herself wanted to reward or tie to their dynasty. The Coya was also responsible for seeing to the education of the young Cuzcan female nobility and the daughters of local leaders. This helped cement the bonds between the Coya and the varying ranks of Incan nobility as well as the women of the provinces, who by state design, would be Incan educated.

As illustrated by the importance of marriage to the queen’s power, marriage ceremonies and the relationships themselves were extremely important to the foundation of the Incan state. When an Incan couple married, certain ceremonies had to be observed, including asking the permission of the Sapa Inca’s agent.

These marriage rites, whether performed for a rich, noble couple or for a poor, peasant couple, “celebrated the formation of a new unity made up of equals.” The rites were accompanied with gift giving, which was supposed to be done on an equal basis to show that one partner was not above the other or that the kinship group of one was not above the kinship group of the other partner. Typically these gifts consisted of clothing, with the amount being determined by the couple’s wealth.

Within their marriage, an Incan couple would view their contributions to the relationship and the household as complementary but equal, which is what the ceremonial gifts illustrated. Andean culture already determined for a newly married couple what types of duties were appropriate for the man and the woman. “But in any case, the division of labor was never so strict as to prohibit one sex from doing the other’s task if the need arose.

Andean gender ideologies recognized that women’s work and men’s work complemented each other.” The indigenous peoples knew that in order for their culture to survive the work done by both sexes was essential, as was the interplay of that work between the two. Thus the contributions of women, from the Coya to the lowest peasant were recognized as essential to the survival of the society.

One of the duties of common women in Incan society was to weave. As already stated, this was an important task for women to learn when in the acllas.

However it was important outside of those institutions as well. A common adult woman was almost always spinning whether she was watching her children or talking with her husband or neighbors, or even while walking. It was the obligation of a woman to make sure that her entire family was clothed and this required a lot of work, especially once there were children to make clothing for. However this was not the sole duty of an Andean woman.

She was also entrusted with chicha making, cooking, helping her husband prepare fields for farming, planting seed, harvesting, weeding, hoeing, herding and carrying water. While in many societies these were the duties of women, in Incan society, unlike others, these tasks were not considered to be simply domestic tasks for the husband’s benefit only. The contributions of women were recognized by Incas for what they were, essential labor for the continuance of the household, community, and finally for the state.

Another area, other than goddess cults, in which Incan women had undisputed authority, was that of child rearing. Women were expected to take exclusive care of children in Incan families. A woman was also responsible for doing her share of the complementary work to that of her husband up until giving birth to the child and was expected to resume that work soon afterward. Children were considered to be the source of wealth for any Incan family and therefore were the primary responsibility of most women in Incan society. This ensured the future of that society.

Clearly, Incan Women had their own power networks in Incan society in politics and religion. They had their own cults, which they headed and which were worshipped by all members of society. The Coya had her own system of reciprocity, estates, and cult after her death. She had authority over marriage rights. Acllas, which were composed entirely of women, were important institutions in the Incan realm because they reinforced the loyalty of the subjects to the state. Mamaconas were important female power tools because they dictated religious observances and educated future acllas and mamaconas. Common women were responsible for some of the most important aspects of Incan life and survival, including weaving, agriculture, and child rearing.

Women's role in Pre-Columbian North America

Native American women in North America traditionally belonged to a culture that gave them respect and where they had power, autonomy and equality. North American Pre-Columbian societies were not so based on a hierarchical system and there were fewer divisions between men and women.

The work of the two genders often differed, but there was no value of one over the other. These women were respected and valued for their contribution to the survival of their families and communities. Their knowledge of plants, their ability to cure and preserve food, and their counsel in political matters was greatly valued.

Pre-Columbian North America women in general, had an important role in the society, as they were givers of life and gave birth to their culture's children, educated the children, and provided a substantial portion of the food for the family. Also, there were some matrilineal societies in Ancient North America, such as the Iroquois, where women provided leadership as well. In such societies, women held positions in societal governmental, civil, and religious offices.

The common duties of North American women were cleaning and maintaining the living quarters, nursing children, gathering plants for food, grinding corn / grain, extracting oil from acorns and nuts, cooking, sewing, packing and unpacking camps in the case of the nomadic peoples. They were also responsible for producing certain crafts such as: brewing dyes, making pottery, and woven items (cloth, baskets, and mats). They also made, or substantially aided in the making of the shelters that were their homes - either by making the Teepees, weaving the materials for stick or grass houses, or other shelters. They were also frequently the healers of their cultures.

In some areas, women were influential in tribal councils and cast the deciding vote for war or peace. For instance, in the Cherokee society, women were considered equal to men and women could become "Beloved Women", who spoke and voted in their society's General Council. Leading the Woman's Council, they prepared and served the ceremonial Black Drink; served the duty of ambassador of peace negotiations, and could save the life of a prisoner already condemned to execution. Likewise, the Cheyenne women had an important role in the deciding to wage war or not.

POCAHONTAS

One of North America's iconic native women was Pocahontas, a Native American woman that lived in the late 16th, and early 17th century, who married an Englishmen, John Rolfe, and became a celebrity in London in the last years of her life. She was the daughter of Powhatan, who ruled a large area in present-day Virginia.

Because of the modern Disney animated fantasy movie, Pocahontas (1995 film), the revisionist view of Pocahontas is as a peacemaking hero that stopped war between the Native Americans and the Europeans, and a powerful women that had a great role in her society. However, this image of Pocahontas is largely fabrication from the movies and John Smith's writings.

It is true that she was a daughter of Powhatan, a chief, but it is not certain if she held any high social rank. While women could inherit power in Powhatan society, Pocahontas could not have done so, because the inheritance of power was matrilineal, and Pocahontas' mother was of lower class. Pocahontas correctly shows that women in some North American societies could have political roles, but at the same time shows that there were restrictions as well.

The Pre-Columbian Woman's World

Women's common roles in all the societies within Pre-Columbian America included housekeeping, raising children, preparing food for the family, and weaving textiles. In addition to these duties, depending on the region, some women participated in political, economic and religious activities. Some of the North American cultures were matrilineal, where women often had power in politics. Also, in societies such as Maya and Aztec, women participated in the market by manufacturing cloth. Women's role in Inca was somewhat different from that of other societies, for women in Inca society had a duty and real power.

What is significant is that women in Pre-Columbian America had comparatively important roles in their society compared to other regions of the same period, such as China, Japan, Korea, and Europe. They had distinctly separate roles from men, but rather than being viewed as inferior to men (at least in the Inca culture), their roles were considered as complementary to the role of men and a necessary component of their society.

Amazing Bird Records: read about birds most important records

by the Colca Specialist

I found this information in a very interesting birdwatching site so I would like to share the information with you my birdie friends. Enjoy the article.

Amazing Bird Records

Find out which birds are fastest, heaviest, smallest, have the greatest wingspan, have the longest bill, lay the largest clutch of eggs, have the most impressive migration path, and much more...

heaviest and tallest bird: ostrich at maximum 156 kg (345 lb) and 2.7 m (9 ft)

heaviest flying birth: great bustard at maximum 21 kg (46.3 lb)

largest extinct bird: Dromornis stirtoni of Australia at 454 kg (1,000 lb) and 3 m (10 ft)

tallest extinct bird: giant moa of New Zealand at 3.7 m (12 ft)

greatest wingspan: wandering albatross at up to 3.63 m (11 ft 11 in)

greatest wingspan of landbirds: Andean condor and marabou stork tied at 3.2 m (10.5 ft)

smallest bird: bee hummingbird at 5.7 cm (2.24 in) and 1.6 g (0.056 oz)

smallest flightless bird: inaccessible island rail at 12.5 cm (5 in) and 34.7 g (1.2 oz)

longest legs: ostrich longest legs relative to body length: black-winged stilt at 23 cm (9 in), or 60% of its height

absolute shortest legs: virtually non-existent in swifts (Apodidae)

longest toes relative to body length: northern jacana at 10 cm (4 in)

longest bill relative to body length: swordtailed hummingbird at 10.5 cm (4.13 in)

absolute longest bill: Australian pelican at 47 cm (18.5 in)

fastest-moving bird: diving peregrine falcon at 188 km/h (117 mph)

fastest flapping flight. white-throated needle-tailed swift at 170 km/h (106 mph)

fastest level-flight. red-breasted merganser at 161 km/h (100 mph)

absolute shortest bill: glossy swiftlet at just a few mm

largest and fleshiest tongue: flamingo

longest tongue relative to body size: wryneck at two-thirds of its body length excluding the tail

smallest hearts relative to body size: Central and South American tinamous at 1.6-3. 1 % of body weight

longest feathers: onagadori, a domestic strain of red jungle fowl, at 10.59 m (34.75 ft)

longest tailfeathers: crested argus pheasant at 173 cm (5.7 ft)

longest tail coverts: Indian and green peafowl at 160 cm (5.24 ft)

widest tail feathers: crested argus pheasant at 13 cm (5.1 in)

longest tail feathers relative to body length: fork-tailed flycatcher at 27 cm (10.75 in)

longest primary feathers relative to body length: permant-winged nightjar at 60 cm (2 fit)

shortest tails: virtually non-existent in kiwis, emus, rheas, cassowaries

greatest number of feathers: whistling swan at 25,216

lowest number of feathers: ruby-throated hummingbird at 940

most secondary flight feathers: wandering and royal albatrosses with 40 secondaries and 11 primaries on each wing

largest eyeball: ostrich with a diameter of 5 cm (2 in)

fastest-moving racing pigeon: 177 km/h (110 mph)

slowest-flying bird: American woodcock at 8 km/h (5 mph)

fastest wingbeat: hummingbirds, e.g., amethyst woodstar and horned sungem, at 90/sec

slowest wingbeat: vultures at 1/sec

longest soaring bird: albatrosses and condors

smallest soaring bird: swift

highest flying bird: Ruppell's griffon vulture at 11,274 in (7 mi)

most aerial bird: sooty terns at 3 to 10 years without landing

most aerial landbird: common swift at 3 years without landing

longest two-way migration: Arctic tern at 40,200 km (25,000 miles)

longest migration (assuming a coastal route): common tern at 26,000 km ( 16,210 miles) in January 1997

most aquatic bird: penguins with 75% of their lives spend in the sea

keenest sense of smell: kiwis

keenest sense of hearing: barn owl

keenest eyesight: diurnal raptors with 1 million cones per sq. mm in the retinal fovea

best light-gathering capacity at night: owls, e.g., tawny owl

greatest G-force (acceleration due to gravity): beak of red-headed woodpecker hitting bark at 20.9 km/h (13 mph)

highest daily frequency of pecking: 12,000 times by black woodpecker

most intelligent bird: African gray parrot, crows, "bait-fishing" green and striated herons

most talkative bird: African gray parrot with a vocabulary of 800 words

birds that use echolocation: cave swiftlets and oilbirds

largest recorded nesting bird colony: 136 million passenger pigeon nesting in an area in Wisconsin covering 1,942 sq km (750 sq mi)

most abundant bird: red-billed quelea at up to 10 billion

fastest running bird: ostrich at 97.5 km/h (60 mph)

fastest running flying bird: greater roadrunner at 42 km/h (26 mph)

fastest underwater swimming bird: gentoo penguin at 36 km/h (22.3 mph)

deepest dive for non-flying bird: emperor penguin at 540 m (1,772 ft)

deepest dive for a flying bird: thick-billed murre at 2 10 m (689 ft)

deepest dive for a flying bird under 210 g: Peruvian diving petrel at 83 m (272 ft)

longest submerged: emperor penguin at 18 minutes

greatest weight-carrying capacity: bald eagle lifting a 6.8 kg (15 lb) mule deer

greatest hibernator: poorwill with body temperature lowered to 18-20 degrees C (64.4-68 degrees F)

greatest bird mimic: marsh warbler with up to 84 songs

most songs Sung per unit time. 22,197 in 10 hours by a red-eyed vireo

coldest temperature regularly endured by a bird: average temperatures of -45.6 degrees C (-50 degrees F) for emperor penguins

coldest temperature endured by a bird: -62.5 degrees C (-80.5 degrees F) by snowy owl

coldest temperature of land where a bird has been recorded: -89.6 degrees C (-129 degrees F) in Vostok, Russia for south polar skua

warmest temperature regularly endured by a bird: larks and wheatears at 44-45 degrees C (111-113 degrees F)

lowest altitude for nesting: little green beeeater at 400 m (1,307 ft) below sea-level in the Dead Sea

longest fasting period: 134 days for incubating male emperor penguins

most northerly nesting bird: ivory gull at edge of pack ice in Arctic Circle

largest ground nest: dusky scrubfowl nest at 11 m (36 ft) wide and 4.9 m (16 ft) high with over 2,700 kg (300 tons) of forest floor litter

largest tree nest: bald eagle in Florida at 6.1 m (20 ft) deep, 2.9 m (9.5 ft) wide, and weighing 2,722 kg (almost 3 tons)

largest social nest: African social weavers with a 100-chamber nest structure 8.2 m (27 ft) in length and 1.8 m (6 ft) high

largest roofed nest: hamerkop at 2 m (6.5 ft) wide and 2 m (6.5 ft) deep

longest nest burrow: rhinoceros auklet at 8 m (26 ft)

highest tree nest: marbled murrelet at 45 m (148 ft)

smallest nest: Cuban bee and Vervain hummingbirds at 1.98 cm (0.78 in) in breadth and 1.98 - 3.0 cm (0.78 - 1.2 in) deep

foulest smelling nest: Eurasian hoopoe

greatest number of sperm storage tubules: turkey at 20,000

greatest longevity of sperm inside a female: turkey at 42 days

largest egg: ostrich measuring 17.8 by 14 cm (7 by 4.5 in)

largest egg laid by a passerine: 5 7 g (2 oz) by Australian lyrebirds

largest egg laid relative to body weight: little spotted kiwi at 26%

smallest egg laid relative to body weight: ostrich egg at 1.5%

smallest egg: West Indian vervain humming bird at 10 mm (0.39 in) in length and 0.375 g (0.0132 oz)

largest collection of bird skins: British Museum of Natural History with 1.25 million

most valuable bird: 8 billion domestic chickens produce 562 billion eggs annually

most valuable nest: gray-rumped swiftlet for bird's nest soup

roundest eggs: owls, tinamous

longest interval between eggs laid: maleo at 1012 day intervals

largest clutch laid by a nidicolous species: 19 eggs laid by a European blue tit

largest clutch laid by a nidifugous species: 28 by a bobwhite quail

largest average clutch size: 15-19 by a gray partridge

smallest clutch size: 1 egg laid every 2 years by albatrosses

greatest number of eggs laid consecutively: 146 by a mallard

longest uninterrupted incubation period: emperor penguin at 64-67 days

longest interrupted incubation period: wandering albatross and brown kiwi at 85 days

longest incubation period by a passerine species: 50 days for Australian lyrebird

shortest incubation period: 11 days by small passerines

longest fledging period of flying birds: wandering albatross at 278 days

greatest number of broods raised in one year: 21 by zebra finch

pair fastest to breeding maturity: common quail at 5 weeks

slowest to breeding maturity: royal and wandering albatrosses at 6-10 years

longest-lived wild bird: royal albatross at over 58 years

longest-lived captive bird: sulfur-crested cockatoo at over 80 years

largest domesticated bird: ostrich

earliest domesticated bird: jungle fowl at 3200 BC

heaviest domestic turkey: 37 kg (81 lb)

country with the most endangered birds: Indonesia with 126 (Brazil second with 121)

country with the highest percentage of its bird species endangered: New Zealand with 30%

country with the most introduced species: United States (Hawaii) with 68

most recent species of bird to be declared extinct: flightless Atitlan grebe of Guatemala in 1984

most recent North American bird to be declared extinct. dusky seaside sparrow, a race of seaside sparrow, in 1987

rarest bird in the world: ivory-billed woodpecker, Jerdon's courser

highest price paid for a bird book: $3.96 million (U.S.) for a set of John James Audubon's The Birds of America in 1989

highest price paid for a mounted bird: 9,000 British pounds for an extinct great auk by the Natural History Museum of Iceland on 1971

highest price paid for a live bird. 41,000 British pounds for a racing pigeon named Peter Pau in 1986

highest price paid for a cage bird. 5,000 British pounds for a hyacinth macaw

highest price paid for an egg: 1,000 British pounds for an egg of extinct Aepyornis maximus

first bird featured on a U.S. postage stamp: bald eagle

Bird Records
Taken from The Bird Almanac
by David M. Bird, PhD

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Amazing Bird Records

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